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The Snohomish people (, , ) are a Lushootseed-speaking Coast Salish people who are indigenous to the Puget Sound region of Washington State. Most Snohomish are enrolled in the Tulalip Tribes and reside on the reservation or nearby, although others are enrolled in other tribes, and some are members of the non-recognized Snohomish Tribe of Indians. Traditionally, the Snohomish occupied a wide area of land, including the Snohomish River, parts of Whidbey Island and Camano Island Islands, and the nearby coastline of Skagit Bay and Puget Sound. They had at least 25 permanent villages throughout their lands, but in 1855, signed the Treaty of Point Elliott and were relocated to the Tulalip Reservation. Although some moved to the reservation, the harsh conditions, lack of land, and oppressive policies of the United States government caused many to leave.
The Snohomish today are descended from several groups, including the N'Quentlmamish and Sdodohobsh, among others. Each group was traditionally independent at the village level, but there was a greater cultural connection, and all called themselves Snohomish. They had a strong conception of their territory, and formed strong alliances between each other and outside with other peoples through marriage and diplomacy, which allowed their reach to extend far beyond their territory. Throughout the summer, they traveled across their territory and beyond to hunt, gather, and fish, while the winter was reserved for religious observances and ceremonies. Today, the Snohomish maintain their tradition of potlatching, as well as other cultural elements such as use of canoes, fishing, hunting, and gathering of traditional materials for cultural crafts.
Traditionally, the Snohomish spoke a subdialect of Northern Lushootseed, although it has fallen out of use in favor of English in more modern times. The Tulalip Tribes are in the process of revitalizing the language, as well as preserving and restoring other traditional cultural teachings, which are known in Lushootseed as .
The name "Snohomish" () was traditionally used to refer to all those who lived in villages on southern Whidbey Island and Camano Island Islands, Hat Island, the coast of Puget Sound from Warm Beach to Mukilteo, and along the Snohomish River until Snohomish City. There were many villages and subgroups within the Snohomish proper, but they all had a level of social cohesion above their own village. In total, the Snohomish had 15 villages around their territory.
The meaning of the word has been debated by linguists and tribal historians. According to the Tulalip Tribes and several ethnologists and historians, the name means "many men" or "lots of people." William Shelton, a prominent leader of the Snohomish people in the early 20th century, said that it meant "lowland people".
Snohomish has also been anglicized many other ways, including Sdoh-hobsh, Sdohobc, Sinahomish, and Sneomuses. Today, Snohomish County, the city of Snohomish, and the Snohomish River are all named after the Snohomish people.
The Snohomish today are descended from several peoples, including the Snohomish proper, the Sdodohobsh, and the N'Quentlmamish. Some ethnographers and historians have historically considered the Skykomish people and the Sktalejum to be subgroups of the Snohomish as well, due to their close ties with the Snohomish, with many Snohomish people seeing the Skykomish as an offshoot group. The Snohomish themselves were placed under the Snoqualmie as subordinates during treaty negotiations, a fact many Snohomish deeply resented. Each subgroup was historically independent from one another, not seen as united under the Snohomish as they are today. Furthermore, each subgroup was composed of several independent villages who were tied together based on shared drainage systems and a complex network of alliances between families. In addition, all the people who came from island villages were known as , however this was not an ethnic term, and purely a geographical identifier.
The ("people of "), also called the Whidbey Island Snohomish, were a wealthy people, widely famous throughout Puget Sound. They had several villages on the southern half of Whidbey Island. Some ethnographers disagree on whether they were a subgroup of the Snohomish or part of the Snohomish proper.
The Quil Ceda people () were those who came from the many villages in the vicinity of Quil Ceda Creek, including the village at Priest Point.
The Sdodohobsh (), also known as the Upper Snohomish or Monroe people, hailed from three independent villages in the vicinity of Monroe. Their name, , means "little Snohomish." They were a low-class group, compared to the high-class Snohomish proper.
The name N'Quentlmamish (, also spelled Kwehtlamamish) refers to all those who lived in villages along the Pilchuck River (). Their territory included the Pilchuck River drainage, including Little Pilchuck Creek and Lake Stevens. They had two villages, and have sometimes been referred to as the Pilchuck people. Like the Sdodohobsh, they were low-class, seen by the Snohomish as mean and isolative. They were party to the Treaty of Point Elliot, as a subgroup of the Snohomish, and their land was ceded by Patkanim, a Snoqualmie.
The Sktalejum () have sometimes been classed as a Snohomish subgroup, other times as a Skykomish people subgroup, and other times as a Snoqualmie subgroup. Their three villages were located on the Skykomish River, above Monroe. Once a powerful group, they were decimated by Smallpox epidemics and left to live in other villages. They were party to the Treaty of Point Elliott, where signed the treaty for them.
The Quadsack, also called the Kwatsakwbixw (), were a group who lived on Hat Slough. They had just one village, and have been variously considered a subgroup of the Snohomish or of the Stillaguamish. Although they were once an independent group, they were closely related to both the Snohomish and the Stillaguamish, and got absorbed after the Smallpox epidemics.
Around 1820, several Snohomish villages were decimated by a large landslide at Camano Head (), the southern tip of Camano Island. A massive landslide occurred when the bluff collapsed, burying a village directly below it. Another village on Hat Island () was wiped out by a large tidal wave caused by the landslide. Residents of the village at saw the landslide happen, and some managed to escape to higher ground before the impact of the wave. The wave also almost destroyed the largest Snohomish village of . The landslide was catastrophic, with hundreds of casualties. It was during the clamming season, and many who were visiting and were buried and drowned.
Around 1824, the Snohomish had been warring with the Klallam people and Cowichan Tribes people for some time. In December of that year, they met the trading party of John Work, a Hudson's Bay Company trader. The Snohomish were among the tribes that later traded with the Hudson's Bay Company at Fort Nisqually, established in 1833 at the southern tip of Puget Sound. They also met Roman Catholic missionaries who entered their lands in the early 1840s., Washington. She attended the Treaty of Point Elliot in 1855.|left]]
During the 1855-1856 Puget Sound War, the Snohomish remained neutral. This upset American authorities, who felt that the Snohomish were "doing nothing" for the American government, and one Indian Agent recommended that the tribe be "disbanded." During this period, the Snohomish were encouraged to remove to a temporary reservation on Whidbey Island, so as to lessen the influence of the tribes fighting the American government.
According to Article 2 of the treaty, the original plan for the Snohomish under the treaty was that they would be relocated to a temporary Snohomish reservation, alongside the Skykomish people, Snoqualmie, and Stillaguamish peoples. However, the treaty commission vastly underestimated the number of people who were living along the Snohomish and Stillaguamish drainage systems. In 1854, the treaty commission were under the impression that there were less than 400 people living along both watersheds. By 1856, reports said that the number of people living along the rivers was as high as 1,800. The two sections of land (1,280 acres) set apart for the Snohomish, Snoqualmie, Skykomish, and Stillaguamish peoples was wholly inadequate according to anthropologist Barbara Lane, and all four tribes would never have been able to support themselves on such a reservation.
At a later date, the Tulalip Reservation was established, as outlined in Article 3. It was originally planned to be a 36-section parcel of land to which all peoples living in western Washington would be relocated. The Tulalip Reservation encompassed the Snohomish reservation, and it was incorporated into the Tulalip Reservation. On December 3, 1873, the Tulalip Reservation was expanded by an executive order. It was enlarged to 24,320 acres.
The Tulalip Reservation was severely overcrowded. Although people were trying to move to the reservation as required, there simply was not enough land. By 1909, the Tulalip Reservation had been completely allotted. Some lost their allotted land, while others never got any allotment at all. Most Snohomish did in fact relocate to the Tulalip reservation early on, however, due to the lack of land, most returned to their traditional homelands. In 1919, 360 Snohomish lived off-reservation, twice as many as those living on-reservation.
In addition to the overcrowding, disease, and lack of work, the oppressive policies of the American government, including suppression of traditional language and religion, caused many people to leave the reservation during the early reservation period.
In 2008 membership in the unrecognized Snohomish Tribe of Indians had increased to 1,200, although it is unknown what percentage of the members are Snohomish. As of 2023, there are at least 5,100 members of the Tulalip Tribes, the majority of whom are of Snohomish ancestry.
Like other Puget Sound tribes, the Snohomish historically had a strong conception of their territory and its boundaries. People were aware of tribal boundaries and where they were, and there was mutual respect for the boundaries of other tribes. Alliances and friendship between nations allowed for arrangements which could allow others to cross into the territory of one's group. Through this system of alliances, the Snohomish allowed other allied peoples to use certain areas of their territory. Snohomish-controlled areas on Whidbey Island were shared with the Lower Skagit, the Kikiallus people, the Snoqualmie, and the Suquamish people. The Stillaguamish, Snoqualmie, and Kikiallus were allowed to use certain areas of Snohomish Camano Island. The Snoqualmie and Duwamish people were allowed to visit Hat Island. Tulalip Bay was shared with the Stillaguamish and Snoqualmie, and the southern Puget Sound coast owned by the Snohomish was shared with their southern Duwamish neighbors. Likewise, many of these groups allowed the Snohomish to visit their lands for hunting, fishing, and gathering in return.
| +List of Snohomish villages !Group !Name !Anglicization(s) !Location !Notes | ||||
| Snohomish () | Bush Point, Whidbey Island | Three longhouses and a potlatch house | ||
| Cultus Bay | Five longhouses, two smaller houses, and a potlatch house; center of the Whidbey Island Snohomish; people living here were called | |||
| Sandy Point, Whidbey Island | Famous potlatch house | |||
| Hat Island | Several longhouses; village was destroyed by a tidal wave in early 19th century, then it was a summer camping spot | |||
| Whee-shud | Camano Head | Destroyed by a landslide in early 19th century. After its destruction, it was only a summer camping spot. | ||
| Warm Beach | Mixed Snohomish, Stillaguamish, and Quadsack village | |||
| Tulare Beach | ||||
| Tulalip | Tulalip Bay | There were four closely located villages within the bay | ||
| Priest Point | Three longhouses and a potlatch house; this was a low class village | |||
| Between and | ||||
| Quil Ceda | Quil Ceda Creek | Very old village with a potlatch house; along the creek there were up to 30 houses and 5 villages; people living along it were | ||
| S'watsida | South of the bridge over the creek | An old ferrying spot for travel across the creek | ||
| Sturgeon Creek | At least one longhouse and a potlatch house | |||
| Upriver of the bridge over the creek, near a small bluff | At least one longhouse | |||
| Upriver from | Post-treaty village; one longhouse | |||
| Hibulb, Hibolb | Preston Point, Everett | Main Snohomish village; four 100'x40' longhouses, many small houses, and a large potlatch house; very high-class and prestigious village | ||
| Snohomish | Large village, unknown number of houses | |||
| N'Quentlmamish () | Pilchuck River, near the mouth | Main N'Quentlmamish village | ||
| Machias | Two houses | |||
| Sdodohobsh () | Three miles southwest of Monroe | Large potlatch house, at least three longhouses | ||
| Two miles southeast of Monroe | Four or five longhouses | |||
| Monroe | Main Sdodohobsh village; also called |
The winter was historically a common time for many religious ceremonies, but especially prominent was the winter spirit power ceremony (). In Snohomish religion, spirit powers travel around the world but return during the winter. When a spirit power returns, a person feels sick and hears their spirit power song. When this happens, one would traditionally host a large ceremony, often lasting several days, in which they would sing, dance, and give out gifts to friends and family. Unlike other ceremonies where people sang their spirit power songs alone, in this ceremony, friends were invited to help sing and dance. At the end of this ceremony, a person would usually give a potlatch.
Snohomish religion also features the , which is a type of spirit in the shape of a board. The tradition emerged in the Puget Sound region during the early historic period and a Snohomish woman claimed to be the first to get it. The boards are painted red and black and were about one-and-a-half feet long with a hole in it. This spirit is said to help people in catching fish, as well as searching for people lost in the woods. During the winter ceremony, people with this spirit did not perform their spirit dance themselves; rather, they hired four men to dance for them in pairs. In each pair, one danced with a larger board and one danced with a smaller board, putting their hand through the hole in the board and dancing counter-clockwise. The dances traditionally lasted four days and four nights, and the songs were sung four times fast and four times slow. Traditionally, the most powerful and desired spirit powers was (also spelled or ). This spirit power is primarily a wealth spirit which helps one acquire wealth and property in life. Someone with was said to receive more gifts during a potlatch than others. Another highly powerful spirit is , which is a war spirit which came to people in time of war or courage. People with often were great and famous warriors. Both of these spirits were found only in deep water. The only spirit which one did not ever want to meet was the (Ayahos). The Ayahos is a highly-powerful elk-snake spirit which has two horns and lives in the forest. Hunters which follow this spirit are believed to die soon after meeting it.
Also a feature of traditional Snohomish religion are shamanistic spirits. Shamans, also called doctors, (dxʷdahəb), are marked by their ability to get unique spirits which can be used to heal or hurt people. Traditionally, a dxʷdahəb did not have a winter dance, and their spirits are said to remain with them at all times. Unlike many other Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Coast, the Snohomish did not have secret societies for their shamans. The traditional belief is that shamans can cure people from many things, but those wounded in war could not be cured by a shaman, only by their own spirit powers. Shamans could also restore the spirit of a person who had their spirit power stolen. It was said that a shaman showed their power by wearing a stone or belt which could turn into a snake.
After colonization, many Snohomish also converted to the Indian Shaker Church, a syncretic Christianity denomination. A Shaker church was built at Tulalip.
Longhouses were owned by those who built it, with many longhouses being owned by the whole community. In larger longhouses with partitions, each room would be owned by one or several families. Other longhouses were owned by just one man and his family, all living in the longhouse.
The potlatch house was a special type of longhouse that wealthier communities could afford. Although any longhouse could be used for potlatches, large and wealthy communities often elected to build special longhouses exclusively for potlatching. Such houses were constructed in a similar fashion to normal houses, but had generally no partitions inside. The largest Snohomish potlatch house was located at dxʷlilap. A large shed-roof house, it was 115 feet long and 43 feet wide, with ten carved house posts.
The Snohomish also built smaller, temporary summer lodgings. They were square shaped, either like a lean-to or with a gabled roof. It was constructed of a frame with large mats stacked on top of each other and overlapped to be waterproof to form the roof and walls. Generally, only one family at a time occupied a summer house.
Fishing is highly important to the Snohomish, and there are many traditional techniques used to catch many types of fish, both in rivers and on the saltwater. The most famous method of fishing on the river is with Weir (). Weirs were built over a river so that one could walk on the platform and lower a dip-net () down into the trapped fish. Traps, hooks, and spears were used as well. Flare fishing, using flares made of pine chips, was done on rivers at night.
Plant resources were also widely used. Roots and berries, as well as certain native vegetables were gathered in the prairies, forests, and marshes. Berries, especially blackberries, were dried and made into cakes for dessert, or for future use. Flour and potatoes were also added to the diet, obtained through trade with settlers.
The Snohomish domesticated and kept the native Salish Wool Dog (), which were sheared for their wool. The wool was highly valuable and could be made into clothing and blankets. According to ethnologist Colin Tweddell, the Snohomish were the center of the woolly-dog craft among the Coast Salish. The Snohomish also made blankets out of feathers and fireweed, as well as from high-quality mountain goat wool caught high in the Cascade Mountains.
A common currency used by the Snohomish was shell money, called Dentalium shell or solax. While many tribes had to trade for shells, the Snohomish were able to gather some types in their own territory, although certain shells did have to be traded. Shells were strung together with a string, and some high-class people wore shells as jewelry, on the end of a necklace or as earrings.
The canoe was the primary method of transportation in historic times. Even today, they are widely used in cultural contexts. Traditionally, the Snohomish utilized five types of canoes. The largest kind was the Quinault people-style canoe, an ocean-going canoe manufactured by the Quinault, who traded it to the Snohomish. It could hold as many as 60 people. The smaller Nootka-style canoe (), also called the war canoe or Chinook canoe, was a saltwater canoe originally from the Makah, but was widely adopted by the Snohomish for traveling. The Snohomish painted this canoe black on the outside, and red on the inside. It could carry as many as fifteen people. A smaller variant of this canoe, the , was made for women and hauling trade goods. The Nootka-style canoe replaced a similar type of canoe, the , which was manufactured natively by the Snohomish. The Snohomish used two types of canoes for river travel, the river canoe and the shovel-nose canoe. The river canoe () was the smallest of the two, usually built for two people, and was made to look like the larger canoes. It was used most commonly for duck hunting and fishing. The more common shovel-nose canoe () was used widely by the Snohomish for quick river travel and for fishing.
Snohomish women wore their hair parted down the middle and hung lose on each side, covering the ear. Below the ear it was braided. Men wore their hair parted down the middle and tied in a knot at the neck. When at work or at war, men tied their hair in a bun at the top of their head, which was decorated with shell money. High-class men decorated their hair for ceremonies, braiding otter skin into the hair and painting it red. Very young children wore their hair loose. A slave's hair was cut short.
Both men and women painted their faces with red paint to prevent chapping and to keep the skin cool during summer. Paint was sometimes in decorative designs representing one's spirit powers. Women also tattooed their arms and legs, but there was no religious significance.
Like other Puget Sound tribes, the Snohomish traditionally did not have chiefs. Rather, there were high-ranking nobles who guided village affairs and resolved disputes, however, they did not have executive authority over anyone. In specific scenarios, like hunting parties or war parties, specific leaders could be appointed who had a higher level of authority during that activity. War leaders had high amounts of authority over warriors, but no one else, and still listened to other high-ranking people for counsel. In matters of law and justice, parties sent orators who decided on appropriate payment to settle the dispute. A dispute left unsettled could lead to war. A common show of friendship after a dispute would have two tribes cut up blankets together and weave the other people's blanket wool into the tribe's own blankets.
Later, after the contact period, Snohomish society began to shift into a more hierarchical system. A system evolved where one chief at who led all the Snohomish villages and governed with the help of various subchiefs. The role was generally hereditary. Despite this, the chief did not have absolute authority, and matters were decided by majority vote at council. One such chief in this era was William Shelton, who was the last hereditary chief of the Snohomish before the eventual abolition of the hereditary chiefdom.
Today, the Snohomish are part of the Tulalip Tribes, which have their own governmental systems.
Traditionally, Snohomish society was made up of a class system composed of three classes: high-class (), low-class (), and slaves (). Slaves were prisoners of war, and, although they could not legally gain their freedom by themselves, it was possible (although uncommon) for the children of a slave to gain their freedom through a beneficial marriage. Otherwise, the children of an enslaved person were also to be slaves. Sometimes, a slave's family might buy them freedom if they could afford it. Enslaved children participated in the religious life as did other children, and those that got powerful spirit powers as they grew up were respected and treated as equals by their masters. The Snohomish never killed their slaves ritually or as punishment, unlike other Puget Sound peoples.
A traditional potlatch generally saw the invitation of hundreds of people from local villages as well as distant villages. A traditional potlatch had an extensive welcome ceremony, in which each arriving group had its own day for welcome. When they arrived, they were greeted by a dance, to which the arriving group would respond with a song. After the welcome ceremonies for all groups, there would be feasting, dancing, and singing. Distribution of gifts (i.e. "potlatching") was common, but did not (and do not) happen at every potlatch. Potlatches also traditionally included long speeches by famous orators, who were given gifts for their speeches. People displayed their spirit powers by singing power songs or by performing tricks.
In modern times, as more people began to be employed in hop fields, the summer months became a time of traveling to the fields to work before heading home for the winter.
The Tulalip Tribes operate two casinos, Quil Ceda Creek Casino and the Tulalip Resort Casino. The Tulalip Tribes also administrate the only tribal municipality in the country, Quil Ceda Village (), and operate the Hibulb Cultural Center, a cultural center and museum. They also have several schools within Marysville School District, as well as a Montessori school and several early childhood education and other welfare and education programs for children and adults. In 2006, the Tribes employed 2,400 people in total. Each year, the Tulalip Tribes participate in the Tribal Canoe Journey, an intra-tribal culture event held across Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. In 2003, the Tulalip Tribes were the host nation. They celebrate Treaty Day on the weekend nearest January 22, and hold powwows and traditional celebrations throughout the year. The Tulalip Tribes also have Smokehouse religion facilities.
The Tulalip Reservation, established for the Snohomish and other groups (including those waiting for previously promised reservations) by the Treaty of Point Elliot, is west of the city of Marysville, is located on traditional Snohomish territory. However, most enrolled members today live off the reservation.
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